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Learning Theories

Behaviorism Behaviorism is one of many learning theories that impacts education on a daily basis. This theory is based on positive and negative reinforcement, changed behaviors, and environmental stimuli. One of the most well known behaviorist studies revolves around changing the behavior of “Pavlov’s dogs” with immediate response and stimulus. The core ideas of the behaviorist theory can be found incorporated into the //Study Island// website (www.studyisland.com), which is based on learning math and language arts skills. The behaviorist theory is based on the idea that children learn from external experiences and practices. Also, “learning can be modified by enforcements (positive or negative), and happens through directed drill and practice” (www.msu.edu). //Study Island// is geared directly at giving children immediate reinforcement during drill and practice. Each question has four answer choices and students must choose one answer. Once they click on the answer, they immediately see a star (indicating a correct answer choice) or a “wrong” notice. The student must answer the question correctly to continue with the quiz. If the website recognizes that a student is guessing the answers, a warning notice appears on the screen and makes the student wait ten seconds before continuing. All of these immediate responses make this website very behaviorist theory based. Another aspect of the behaviorist theory that is incorporated into //Study Island// is instruction that focuses on “teaching sequences of skills beginning with lower level then higher skills, clearly stated objectives with test items matched to them, and more individualized work than group work” (www.msu.edu). Each child begins each quiz with easier questions and then proceeds to more difficult material as mastery is achieved. Also, //Study Island// is an independent activity website. Students work by themselves, not in groups. The constant, personal stimuli from the website shapes the child’s learning. Resources [] [|https://www.msu.edu/~kalinkat/professionalpages/TechMatrixMaterials/BehaviorismSummary.htm] []

Constructivism is a philosophy of learning that was founded on the premise that by reflecting on our past experiences, we can construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own rules and models to follow in which we can use to make sense of our experiences. Therefore, learning is simply the process of adjusting our mental thinking to accommodate newly acquired experiences. Learning has always been a search for meaning, which based upon the philosophy of constructivism, should start with the issues that students are actively trying to construct meaning from. When you construct meaning, the learner must look at the whole part of a picture as well as the pieces that are contained within it. Most importantly, the learning process should focus on primary concepts rather than on mundane isolated facts. In order to be effective teachers, educators should look at understanding the mental rules and models that students use in order to help them perceive and understand the world. The purpose of learning is for individuals to construct meaning rather than memorizing and regurgitating random facts and materials. Education should also not focus on standardized tests at the end, but on assessment that is built into the learning process allowing students to have feedback on the quality of their learning. Second Life is a multi-user virtual environment that was created in 2003. It is a virtual world created and owned by its residents. Currently, they have over 8 million residents. Second Life has also begun to work itself into the education world, providing “a unique and flexible environments for educators interested in distance learning, computer-supported cooperative work, simulation, new media studies and corporate training” ( [|www.secondlife.com] ). Currently, there are over 140 universities set up in second life. There are many uses for second life, and the creators state that “using Second Life as a supplemental to traditional classroom environments also provides new opportunities for enriching an existing curriculum. Many universities and educational institutions are already using Second Life” ( [|www.secondlife.com] ). Second Life users immerse themselves in learning simulations, utilizing a constructivist theory of instruction. There are also many opportunities for collaboration and socialization. Resources: [|www.secondlife.com]
 * Constructivism**


 * Cognitivism in Second Life**


 * Factors that influence learning**

In cognitivism, environmental conditions facilitate learning. Second Life is a 3D MUVE, and like many virtual environments, is conducive to certain types of activities. Some of these activities are listed here from the TELRport Second Life Project Wiki:

1. Visual or spatial activities 2. Simulations or immersive experiences 3. Social activities 4. Object development 5. Collaborative, constructive activities

Also listed, were some things that Second Life doesn’t do well:

1. Communicating large amounts of data 2. Making 2D images and objects engaging 3. Replicating real-life limitations.

In using Second Life as a medium for instruction, the educator opens the door for a multitude of learning opportunities. Everything from social interaction and collaboration, to a greater sense of identification.


 * Role(s) that computer technology can play in learning and instruction**

MUVE’s are not necessarily learning software or programs, but more a place to learn. One is learning “in” technology rather than “with” technology. In Second Life, one interacts with the virtual environment through their avatar, which has implications of its own. Studies have shown that when a person is behind the guise of an avatar, they often have less fear of making mistakes and are apt to explore and take chances. This leads to discovery learning and can be applied to real life experiences.


 * Principles that are relevant to the design of computer-enhanced instruction**

In taking into consideration the design principles of computer-enhanced instruction, Second Life has its limits. As mentioned earlier, Second Life as an educational medium, is not successful at communicating large amounts of data, making 2D images and objects engaging, and replicating real-life limitations. These are not necessarily design principles per se, just limitations inherent to the design of the MUVE. Being a 3D virtual environment, it is difficult to pinpoint specific design principles that might adhere to 2D educational software but not to an MUVE. Principles such as having audio narration and text together, graphics and text, extraneous graphics and sounds, all would be tough to apply here.


 * Ways that instruction should be structured**

According to cognitive theory, instruction should be structured in a way to make knowledge meaningful, and to help learners organize and connect new information to knowledge existing in memory. TELRport Second Life Project Wiki offers the following best practices for using Second Life:

1. Playground versus Workplace 2. Performative 3. Collaboration and Cross-functional Teams 4. Social Networking 5. Recognize and Support Skill Stratification 6. Teacher becomes Facilitator, Student becomes Peer Mentor 7. Scale Projects to Fit Resources 8. Situate Second Life within a Larger Internet Ecology 9. Leverage In-world Resources 10. When Technology Fails, Know When To Move On 11. Time is Relative 12. Distance Learning Tool

While this list is not conclusive, it does provide some guidance when considering the use of Second Life as an instructional medium.


 * Ways that learning should be evaluated**

Evaluating learning cognitively in a MUVE, one could compare experiences learned to those mirrored in various appropriate contexts. For example navigating through the procedures involved in constructing a dwelling virtually as opposed to actually building a house. Simulations would hit heavily in this area. Another example that was mentioned by Ruth Clark was the Multimedia Course for Intensive Care Nurses. Something very similar, and possibly more realistic could be created in Second Life.


 * Ways that feedback should be given**

Feedback is used in cognitive theory to guide and support the connections made between prior existing knowledge and that of the newly acquired. Feedback in Second Life is rather covert in that the environment itself does not offer direct feedback. An educator using Second Life as a medium would have to come up with ways to offer feedback. In discovery learning in Second Life, feedback would come in the form of successes in navigating, being able to maneuver your avatar in specific ways, acquiring “Linden” dollars, or in various other forms perhaps discovered by chance.


 * Ways that transfer of learning occurs**

In cognitive theory, transfer occurs “When a learner understands how to apply knowledge in different contexts,” according to Ertmer and Newby. In Second Life and similar MUVE’s, the virtual environment itself can cause a learner to activate prior knowledge and make connections. There are various ways this could be done through simulation, direct engagement with subject matter, and first person learning. Students could relive historical events, learn the human circulatory system by travel through it, visit replicas of universities and museums, and so forth. The possibilities are endless. Some suggestions offered at the TELRport Second Life Project Wiki:

1. Have real-world relevance 2. Are ill-defined, requiring students to define the required tasks 3. Comprise complex tasks to be investigated over a sustained period of time 4. Provide the opportunity for students to examine the task from different perspectives 5. Provide the opportunity to collaborate 6. Provide the opportunity to reflect 7. Can be integrated across subject areas 8. Are seamlessly integrated with assessment 9. Create polished, valuable products 10. Allow competing solutions and a diversity of outcomes

References

Ertmer, P. and Newby, T. (1993 Volume 6, Number 4) Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features from an Instructional Design Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 50-72

Clark, R. (2002, August, Volume 41, Number 7) The New ISD: Applying Cognitive Strategies to Instructional Design. Performance Improvement. www.ispi.org

TELRport Second Life Project Wiki - []

Harrison, D. (2009, February 18) Real-Life Teaching in a Virtual World. []

Second Life - []